Introduction
There is no denying that the threat of terrorism, often fuelled by extremist religious ideologies, persists. Twenty years since the 9/11 attacks, Southeast Asia has seen its fair share of attacks initiated in support for either al-Qaeda or ISIS. The region, where an estimated 257 million Muslims call home, has often been the favoured location for the establishment of localised terrorist networks. The Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia particularly have witnessed local terrorist-linked networks threatening the internal security of these nations and continue to be wary of impending attacks driven by extremist principles. This phenomenon is not alien to Brunei, a small nation in the island of Borneo that is situated strategically between the four countries. But yet, Brunei is seemingly absent in discussions pertaining terrorism or religious extremism within Southeast Asia. Despite this absence, Brunei has dealt with its fair share of potential terrorist threats in recent years, both coming from citizens and non-citizens of the country. For this reason, it is important to expound upon how Brunei Darussalam has responded to the threats of religious extremism and somehow continues to fly under the radar of terrorist organisations. In order to have a better understanding of the Bruneian experience, it is important to contextualise the discussion around how the governance of Muslims evolved over time in the abode of peace that is Brunei Darussalam.
Institutionalization of Islam in Brunei: A Relevant Safeguard Against Extremism
The main contention at this point is to comprehend how Brunei maintains a dynamic strategy when dealing with what it considers as threats towards the Islamic faith, particularly within the context of Melayu Islam Beraja (MIB). From an evolutionary historical perspective, the goal is to provide an overview of how Brunei governs the existence of religious groups and potential threats made towards the Bruneian religio-political landscape. Although Islam in Brunei has been practiced for centuries, a proper administration to govern the religious affairs of Muslim only began to take shape after 1954, with the formation of the Majlis Mesyuarat Shariah (Sharī’ah Council) chaired by His Highness the Sultan of Brunei. The institutionalisation of Islamic teachings in Brunei, and the introduction of formal religious education during the 1950s, allowed for a formalised government body to govern the religious affairs of its citizens. The Majlis Ugama Islam Brunei (MUIB), was thus authorised to:
“…aid and advise His Majesty on all matters relating to the religion of Brunei, and shall in all such matters be the chief authority in Brunei.”
One of the first major test for Brunei’s assertion of this particular form of Islamic Governance, was the emergence of religious groups originating from Malaysia and Indonesia who began to form networks in Brunei. During the 1970s and 80s, the Ahmadiyyah movement and the Al-Arqam phenomenon, for instance, gained a following among Bruneians, signifying the enthusiasm and eagerness of Bruneians in uplifting their religious practices outside of the state’s purview. The close relationship between religion, authority and politics within Brunei is central in understanding what makes up the Bruneian response in preserving and promoting the Bruneian model of Islam. Mansurnoor believes that:
“The control, and perhaps influence, of the palace on religious matters continued to be a crucial factor in making religious ideas uniform and less prone to harmful external influences”
In this case, banning Al-Arqam and Ahmadiyyah was motivated by the need to preserve and promote the Islamic faith that has been outlined by the Religious Council and the Bruneian Constitution. As an extension to this responsibility, the Ministry of Religious Affairs (MORA) and the State Mufti were tasked with filtering out religious ideologies that are incongruent with the Constitution. As the need arises for a more comprehensive task in preserving and promoting the Bruneian Islam, a different strategy was implemented, one that considered a whole-of-government approach in remaining resilient to any influences that could jeopardise the contemporary Negara system.
Continued Resilience via Brunei’s Whole-of-Government Approach
Since the 9/11 attacks, following the lead of other nations within the region, the whole-of-government approach implemented by Brunei required the involvement of various government agencies, transforming Brunei into a resilient force to combat terrorism. The government often takes a proactive role in overseeing the religious activities conducted by private individuals, while at the same time, campaigning for a particular approach to a state-sanctioned type of Islam, publicised through TV stations,
radios, public lectures, talks and sermons during Friday prayers, all of which are regulated by the government. As part of efforts to ensure that no citizen could provide financial support to any terrorist organisations, the Anti-Terrorism (Terrorist Financing) Regulations 2013 requires financial institutions in Brunei to report and freeze assets of individuals who are suspected of providing support to terrorists and terrorists organisations listed under the UN sanction List concerning individuals, groups, undertakings and entities linked to Al-Qaeda, the Taliban and ISIS, including regional terrorist groups such as Jemaah Islamiyah, Abu Sayyaf Group and also the Jamaah Ansahrut Daulah, who were added to the list as recent as March 2020. On this note, additional policies were implemented specifically to counter threats of terrorism aimed at providing a more robust internal security for Brunei. The Anti-Terrorist Act 2011 was ratified to suppress and to provide support to any international obligation relating to the combating of terrorism. To this extent, The Internal Security Department (ISD) under the Prime Minister’s office is responsible for monitoring and reporting any activities that are intended to cause fear and panic within the society based on any political or religious aim or ideology. Under chapter 133 of the Internal Security Act, convicted terrorist supporters in Brunei were either deported or imprisoned, based on the investigation and report provided by ISD. Meanwhile, in order to neutralise external threats, Brunei feels the need to foster strong regional and international cooperation, a responsibility fulfilled by the Bruneian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Diplomatic and defence cooperation frameworks also serve to strengthen political legitimacy, providing Brunei with a stronger counter terrorism strategy.
Brunei’s multi-faceted approach to counter religious extremism has always been geared towards getting government agencies to collaborate and cooperate towards a single objective. To ensure Brunei remains resilient to any potential religious extremist threats, what started as a preservative strategy in safeguarding the Islamic faith, expanded its scope to include safeguarding the economy, security, as well as the minds of Bruneians by providing an approved form of religious education. To this extent, the Compulsory Religious Education Act adopted in 2013, serves a dual purpose, one of which is to ensure that every resident or citizen of Brunei will be equipped with the necessary foundation of Islamic principles and values. Additionally, the government is now able to match Bruneian’s enthusiasm in developing their faith, while ensuring the Bruneian Islam is protected and constantly promoted even by future generations.
Conclusion
Although it cannot be said that Brunei is immune to potential or actual religious extremist threats, what the country has is a robust internal security framework that has been able to contribute to the peace and harmony of the state. A whole-of-nation approach taken by Brunei emphasises a contextualised Islam that is uniquely Bruneian. Other ASEAN countries may consider following Brunei’s approach by first understanding how Islam is practiced in their countries, and secondly, recognising the nuances. This will assist countries address issues that allow for religious extremist ideologies to develop. As for Brunei’s future trajectory, it remains to be seen whether it will be able to sustain the resilience it has shown in the face of extremist threats. However, what is certain for the nation is that it will continue to provide a dynamic strategical framework, one that can defeat external threats that may come to its shores.